2.0 WRITING

2.1 What is writing?

One of the important functions of writing is to act as 'an instrument for conveying ideas from one mind to another' (Gowers 1987, p. 1). Therefore the writer's job is to make the reader(s) understand the meaning quickly and precisely.

2.1.1 What are the most important writing skills?

• writing clearly
• knowing how to organise information and ideas logically

2.1.2 What is clear writing?

• direct, straightforward expression
• precise, accurate expression

2.1.3 Why is clarity important?

• it shows respect for the reader
• it increases the credibility of a document
• it encourages honesty

2.2 Techniques for improving clarity

2.2.1 Use familiar words

2.2.2 Avoid pointless repetition

In these examples, the repetitive or unnecessary words are shown in parentheses:

The two cars were exactly the same.

(exactly)

He thought out the plan in his head.

(in his head)

The end result of this merger will be higher unemployment.
(end)

The underlying principle of this document.
(underlying)

This policy will completely eliminate computer crime.
(completely)

The problem of dishonesty still remains.
(still)

2.2.3 Avoid wordy expressions and `slow starting' sentences

Instead of
It is for this reason that...

use
For this reason...

Instead of
There are three common types of splices that are used in electrical connections.

use
Three types of splices are used in electrical connections.

Instead of
It is important that all employees read the safety handbook.

use
All employees must read the safety handbook.

2.2.4 Use concise rather than wordy expressions

2.2.5 Beware of double negatives

A double negative in a sentence creates confusion and in many cases is grammatically incorrect. In standard English a double negative usually creates a positive meaning. Use a single negative word to mean `no' and leave out negative forms when you mean `yes':

2.2.6 Avoid trite, cliched phrases

2.2.7 Use the active rather than the passive voice whenever possible

2.2.8 Avoid vague expressions of opinion or belief

2.2.9 Avoid jargon unless it will aid clarity and brevity

(when can jargon be used?)

2.3 Focusing information

2.3.1 Sentences

In sentences put the main idea first

• This will usually be the subject of the sentence, which is why it is a good idea to write in the active rather than the passive voice (see 2.2.7)

• However, the structure of a sentence will depend upon the emphasis you wish to give to a certain word or words

2.3.2 Paragraphs

Effective paragraphing involves the following characteristics.

2.3.2.1 UNITY

• Each paragraph should deal with a single topic or `thesis'

• Try to begin paragraphs with a `topic sentence' which announces the main idea

• Every sentence in the paragraph should contribute to the topic

• When you shift to another topic, begin a new paragraph

2.3.2.2 COHERENCE

• The sequence of thoughts and ideas should flow smoothly and logically from sentence to sentence

within each paragraph

• Readers can be helped to see the relationships between sentences in a paragraph if you

(a) repeat key words from sentence to sentence

(b) use `pointing words' eg this, that, these, those

(c) use (but don't overuse) conjunctive (`thought-connecting') words eg thus, however, then, nevertheless

(d) arrange the sentences into some kind of perceptible, logical order

2.3.2.3 DEVELOPMENT

• The topic being discussed in each paragraph should be adequately developed, eg by

(a) presenting examples, illustrations or anecdotes relevant to the argument

(b) citing data—facts, statistics, evidence—to confirm your position

(c) quoting, paraphrasing or summarising the testimony or opinion of others as support

(d) defining terms, describing, comparing or contrasting

(e) exploring causes, reasons, effects and consequences

• Paragraphs consisting of just one or two sentences should be used rarely, and only for special emphasis

2.4 Plain English

Plain English is a new name for an old, essential part of effective communication. It simply means using clear, easily understood words to communicate, rather than `flowery', verbose, or pretentious words, which usually create confusion and resentment in your reader or listener.

The following is an excerpt from a real report on two employees' performance:

The attitude of each, that he was not required to inform himself of, and his lack of interest in, the measures taken by the other to carry out the responsibility assigned to such other under the provision of plans then in effect, demonstrated on the part of each lack of appreciation of the responsibilities vested in them, and inherent in their positions.

As the manager you must rely on the written reports of your section managers. Would you feel confident to judge their performance, and their future, from this report? Compare the above with the following translation into clearer writing:

Neither took any interest in the other's plans, or even found out what they were. This shows that they did not appreciate the responsibilities of their positions.

Using Plain English ensures that you don't `lose' or hide the important information you need to communicate. It ensures that you are open, clear and honest about what you are saying. It never uses unnecessary jargon. Remember, however, that Plain English is not oversimplified language, or any form of `child-speak'. It does not apply to traditional notions of language as art, or literature (though many great writers have stressed the importance of clear, easily understood language).

Most Australian federal and state government departments, and many large business organisations now have Plain English policies, though too many examples of poor quality, `muddy' writing are still produced by people and organisations who confuse sounding important with saying something important.

Plain English is not only important for clear and honest communication. It also saves vast amounts of money and time. The NRMA (the NSW equivalent of the RAA) was an Australian pioneer in the use of Plain English. It introduced a Plain English Insurance Policy in 1976. The results of this policy were:

• customer relations improved through clearer information
• staff training time was reduced
• time used for explanations between staff reduced or eliminated
• improved general efficiency

The Victorian Government's Plain English Policy saved $400,000 in salaries in one year by rewriting just one cumbersome, widely-used legal document. The British Government began reviewing its official forms in 1982. Since then:

• 126,500 forms have been reviewed
• 27,000 forms have been scrapped
• 41,000 have been redesigned
• over £14,000,000 have been saved

When governments use Plain English they are seen as less alien and remote by the public, and the public can more easily understand government policy. Plain English is essential for a democracy to function properly.

For assistance contact: paul.skrebels@unisa.edu.au
Copyright ©1997 University of South Australia
Prepared by the Flexible Learning Centre, University of South Australia
Prepared: 28 January 1997
URL: http://www-i.roma.unisa.edu.au/07118/language/writing.htm